Nucleosynthesis is accepted as a fact of supernovas. I propose that it is possible that essentially all stars from ones smaller than the sun and larger up to supernovae follow the fusion process to its ultimate limit iron. . Because of the density of the core material not all of the fusing component gets used leaving a small amount as a separate layer at each stage of the process, much like what is thought to occur in supernovas. Because fewer numbers of atoms are being created at each stage the volume occupied by that next stage must decreaseif all conditions remain the same. However they cannotBecause the volume is shrinking and the mass contained remains the same the pressure must increase. The energy released by the necessary contraction will heat the mass somewhat keeping the volume the same or even allowing it to decrease. Significantly.
The final fusion state would be a nickel - iron core surrounded by a layer of sulphur and in-between S Ni elements, Surrounded by a si- s layer which is surrounded by an Oxygen layer surrounded by a carbon layer which is surrounded by a helium layer. To the skeptics who will undoubtedly say that the sun is too small to have a high enough temperature to fuse to iron I would like to remind them of some facts.
1 The time it takes for non neutrino energy to escape from the core is about 1 My.This means that the core must be continually getting hotter and cannot in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium. It produces more heat than it loses. This is due to the insulation from the mass of non fusing layers of gases. surrounding the fusing core. 2 Over time the core temperature has to get hotter due to insulation by the dense gases surrounding the core. Since heat only flows from a hot source to a cold one the core must always be hotter than the surrounding layers. Over time then the core temperature must continually increase as more heat is released into it.
If a mere 1 percent or lesst of the energy could not escape this would be enough to heat the core sufficiently to cause other fusion reactions to occur. Secondly there is also the possibility of plasma electron capture by protons to form neutrons which can then be captured by other elements to form heavier ones during the fusion process. This can also explain how heavier elements formed in the sun. There is some evidence that Technetium has been detected in the sun. Since Technicium has no stable isotopes it must have been synthesized in the sun. It Technicium can be synthesized then certainly all the lighter elements should be as well. 3 As the core collapses as one fusing species is depleted the core temperature will increase due to the release of gravitational potential energy. The density would increases and the fusing core volume would decrease somewhat depending on the final temperaturebased on PV=NRT.
The denser plasma will have a greater insulating effect and thus the core material retains more heat and the temperature increases.. These successive collapses and heating are sufficient to increase the core temperature to those necessary for fusion of the more massive fusion end products iron nickel. During the hydrogen to helium fusion process there is a second initial reaction occurring namely the pep process which accounts for about 2 percent of the neutrino's formed. The production of deuterium allows for a simpler stepwise fusion process to build up heavier elements during the initial hydrogen to helium burn. At the present time the C-N-O cycle may already be occurring. It would be easy to build up heavier elements decause all the reactions would produce energy thereby favouring the reaction. When hydrogen to helim burn is completed the core must collapse and as it does so the gravitational energy release heats the plasma hot enough to cause fusion of he to carbon. During this phase of helium burning there would be neutron and deuterium formation as well.
The inability of Be 8 to form would allow for more stable isotopes of Be to form and capturing deuterium the stepwise buildup of heavier elements could occur. Many believe that after carbon there will be no further fusion, owever the plasma is considered an ideal gas and so must be able to compressed to such a small volume that succeeeding fusion steps can and do occur. The mass of the sun is so large and dense that the energy produced at the center cannot escape easily, taking millions of years to reach the surface. In consideration of this fact the core temperature must be continually increasing thus allowing fusion reactions of carbon and the heavier elements up to nickel.
Successive fusion steps occur. H to He, He to C O Si S Fe Ni. The energy required to keep the core plasma from collapsing is the same at each stage of fusion. The core gravitationally collapses which releases enough energy to heat it to a higher temperature which then balances the inward pressure. The now hotter core fuses faster and releases more energy until this stage of fusion is exhausted and another collapse occurs. The amount of energy released in the successive fusion stages is much less and the stages are completed in shorter time spans because the same amount of energy needs to be produced to prevent further collapse. Thus the reaction rate needs to increase. . The burn time for the different stages of fusion can be calculated by comparing the energy released per nucleon at each stage.
We start with the hydrogen to helium burn H to He takes about 7 B years. Burn energy=7.2 - 1.2 = 6 Mev / nuc The time constant for the Sun is thus 6 mev/ nucleon = 7by. Using this value and estimating that only 90 percent of each successive nucleotide mass is converted we can estimate the time for each stage based on the initial energy requirements, by comparing the energy released per nucleon and subtracting that of the previous element formed. compared to He.
Binding energy for C = 7.8 mev/nuc. For He = 7.2 mev/nuc. Subtracting the binding energy of he from that of carbon gives a ratio of the time for the carbon formation as compared to the time for the formation of helium. 7.8 - 7.2 = .6 Mev / Nuc The Ratio .6 /7.2 X .9 conversion factor X 7b= 525 my Thus He to C takes about 525 My Using the ratios of the binding energy of the heavier nucleons the times for the successive burning stages can be estimated. C to O takes about 8.3 - 7.8 = 0.5 mev/nu Ratio 0.5/7.2 X .9 x 7b = 437 my O to Si takes about 8.5 - 8.3 = .3 Mev / Nuc Ratio .3/ 7.2 X .9 X 7 B Y = 262 M y Si to S takes about 8.55- 8.5 = .05 Ratio .05 / 7.2 X .9 X 7 = 43.7 M yr S to Fe Ni takes about 8.56- 8.55 = .01 Ratio .01 /7.2 X .9 X 7,000 yrs = 8.75 M yrs
The final collapse of the Iron-Nickel core would have taken about a minuteor less. At a rate of 300,000 miles an hour. The overall fusion process thus would have taken about 8.5 B y. When combined with the estimated 4.5 B y age of our solar system adds to 13 B y which coincidently is the estimated age of the universe and The Milky Way Galaxy. Fusion stops at the nickel iron stage becuse all heavier elements require an input of energy for them to form. The onion skin core collapses releasinv significant gravitational potential energy which allows heavier elements to be formed under the intense pressure.
The inincredible density of the the core plasma causes it to behave more like a liquid. it begins spinning rapidly, due to the angular momentum being exerted over a smaller radius, as it collapses.The density increases to a point from which the plasma recoils. The combination of the recoil and the centrifugal forces acting on the plasma break it into very dense globules of material held together by gravity. When the recoil occurs it sends shock waves throughout the star causing it to expand into a red giant as it cooled on expansion..
Once the fragmented peices of the core were out from under the massive pressure they rapidly expand and form a solid crust. If large enough they retain atmospheres of the various gases formed during the expansion from the plasma. The smaller fragments of the core become asteroids and coments. All planets and fragments orbit the reformed sun in positions determined by their initial momentums.
The angular momentum of the fragments being coupled together and under the gravitation attraction of the sun caused them to spiral into their present orbits. By the time the fusing core reached the Fe-Ni stage it would have increased its density to an estimated 1500 gms per cc. The dense plasma kept it together as it increased its rotation due to angular momentum being exerted over a decreasing radius. Although there was a lot of centrifugal force on the collapsed core it was the recoil from its maximum density that added enough energy to break it apart. The smaller the radius the stronger the gravitational effect.
As the Ni-Fe plasma collapsed gravitational potential energy iwa released and increased its temperature. The density of the collapsing core plasma may reach that of neutrons before recoiling. Heavier elements than nickel are formed during the collapse. This heavier nucleosynthesis is endothermic and is made possible by the gravitational energy released from the core collapse. As in a supernova the extremely rapidly spinning core recoils sending out a shockwave as the density reaches a maximum. This causes the outer layers of the sun to expand into a low mass red giant. It reddens due to its lower temperature as the gas expands.
The recoil combined with the centrifugal force exerted on the core causes it to fragment and the pieces spiral outwards into the gas cloud which has become a low mass Red giant and the large chunks of it move outward, in a spiral fashion, due to being coupled with each other The fragments then underwent rapid expansion and cooling to form solid crusts, from the plasma state as the pressure was removed as they move red out from the center of the newly formed red giant.
The newly formed planets settle into orbits about the center of mass of the red giant and begin to collect the gases they have the ability to retain. Thus the four largest collect large quantities of hydrogen and helium to become the gas giants. The smaller globules become the inner planets and quickly formed solid crusts under their atmospheres as they rapidly expanded from an extremely dense plasma.
The plasma density was such that the earth and moon would have occupied a volume of less than 1 cubic kilometer when it broke off from the main core. On earth the rapid formation of a solid crust is evidenced by the age of granite, all samples of granite from all over the earth have the same age. This can only be explained by a rapid solidification process such as would happen if a very dense plasma under tremendous pressure were suddenly to find the pressure released as would have happened after the recoil and breakup of the core.
Many different chemical species form such as phosphates, silicates, carbonates, sulphides, sulphates, and chlorides. There is an almost instantaneous solidification of the lighter chemical species which have remained above the much denser nickel iron core. The centers of all the eight large planets and their various moons behaved in the same way. The smaller fragments congealed into the inner four and all the moons. The four largest fragments became gas giants as their initial masses were large enough to exert sufficient gravity that they were able to capture and retain hydrogen and helium from the Red Giant atmosphere. |
 |
|
| |
